Segmentation and Targeting Research Paper Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 1000 words - 1

Segmentation and Targeting - Research Paper Example According to the book entitled â€Å"Principles of Marketing,† the primary method of evaluating a company’s marketing strategies is by way of SWOT analysis. SWOT stands for strengths, weakness, opportunities, and threats (Kotler and Armstrong, 2010). According to the article entitled â€Å"Marketing at McDonalds,† the company’s strengths lies in its brand and the extensive marketing research that the company performs (â€Å"Marketing at McDonalds†, 2011). Additionally, the company’s main opportunity is the continued population growth which provides more customers (â€Å"Marketing at McDonald’s,†2011). The weakness of the company is the brand maturity which means that as the company ages, they still need to make important changes in order to keep up with the competition (â€Å"Marketing at McDonald’s,† 2011). Finally, the threats to McDonalds include the growing health awareness and the connection between fast food and obesity as well as competition from other fast food establishments (â€Å"Marketing at McDonald’s, †2011). Perhaps the genius behind McDonalds lies in the fact that there does not appear to be a specific target market when it comes to advertising and marketing. The book â€Å"Principles of Marketing† defines a target market as a â€Å"set of buyers who share common needs or characteristics that the company decides to serve†(Kotler and Armstrong, 2010). For some companies, there is a very specific target market that they are trying to reach. McDonalds, on the other hand, markets to all different types of races, languages, and lifestyles. The only common need that the consumers all appear to share is that of wanting affordable, tasty, and quick food. Therefore, these are the elements that McDonalds must play up within their marketing mix. According to the article entitled â€Å"Marketing at McDonald’s,† the company utilizes four main compo nents for its marketing strategy: product, price, promotion, and place (â€Å"Marketing at McDonalds,† 2011). The company has an overall objective of setting itself apart from its competitors by effectively meeting the goals for the marketing mix. For product and price, the company must look at what they are providing and determine what needs to be revamped and what is performing at expectations. Additionally, price must come into play as the company determines how much value the customers place on the product that McDonalds sells as part of the restaurants popularity is associated with low prices. Determining the physical positioning of the McDonald’s restaurant takes a lot of research as locations must be scouted in order to find the one with potential consumers and less competition. Finally, promotion involves the media advertisements that the company puts out in order to draw in consumers. The company must position itself in such a way as to make their ads stand ou t and apart from the multitude of other advertisements that people are bombarded with on a daily basis. Currently, McDonalds has been in the midst of changing their product line in order to secure their position as one of the top fast food restaurants in the world. According to the article entitled â€Å"McDonald’s adds oatmeal to the menu,† in the beginning of 2011 McDonalds began adding healthier breakfast items to their menu such as oatmeal, yogurt parfaits, and fruit salads in order to help combat some

The Consequences of Economic Growth Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 1250 words

The Consequences of Economic Growth - Essay Example This discussion highlights that  with increased economic transaction between populations within and outside of national borders have led to greater economic growth throughout many parts of the planet.   Employment increases, the cost of products decrease to a competitive market level, and the number of firms and the quality of firms increase.   As a developing economy grows, there is a greater propensity and incentive for foreign governments to provide some form of economic aid, which is also in their benefits for their own economic expansion.From the study it is clear that  with the spread of commerce comes the spread of newer technologies. With the breakthroughs in technologies in the telecommunications industry, the technology itself has become more accessible for lower income customers.   Anyone with an internet connection can now communicate and do business with anyone else in the world.   This has led to a rapid growth in traditionally lesser-developed countries, be cause now there is a productive work force with the means to enlarge their economic fortunes.   With the greater diffusion of technologies, entrepreneurs have become more empowered and enfranchised with freedom to pursue business ventures and this had led to a growth in business.  Nations with no economic development at all are subject to civil war, systemic poverty, famine, and political instability, as often and tragically observed in Sub-Saharan Africa or Central Asia in the present day.  Ã‚  

Fashion Industry Essay Example for Free

Fashion Industry Essay This summer it is boho chic. Last summer, it was preppy sailor simplicity. In the late 90s it was the grunge look. Yellow is the new black. Jeans are the new business casual. And on. And on. Yes, I am writing of fashion trends. The latest look, style, and color floods the covers of magazines, the shelves of retailers from Saks to H M, the bodies of celebrities and television characters and, undoubtedly, is able to get enough of us to buy into it (literally and figuratively) to validate the whole cycle. So, while most of us are easily able to grasp this continuously perpetuating cycle of saturating the public with the latest, greatest duds, questions remain: how does a trend start? Who makes this decision? Why does it work? Well, to be perfectly honest, there is no definitive answer to the myth that is a fashion trend. But, while the exact formula is beyond the consumer, we can be sure that it takes the work of several different interdependent fashion industry professions to convince us that espadrilles, suspenders, and terry-cloth suits are worthy of our dollars and donning. Fashion designers gather their inspiration, whether it comes from popular culture, music, politics, a celebrity muse, or something else entirely. Then, they design usually a spring and fall collection. With a slew of inspired, perfectly crafted designs ready to hit the runway, they show their collections. It could possibly be said that the trend begins at the fashion show. Fashion writers, buyers, photographers and celebrities line the runways, waiting to take in, criticize and praise the designers work. Writers go back to their offices and verbally comment on the design they have seen. If a collection is deemed great, the editor may be persuaded to feature the clothing on the cover of the months issue. This is also influenced by fashion publicists professionals who are paid to get the designers duds in front of larger audiences. Thus, we read about the latest fashion trend. Photographers snap photos as the models parade down the runway and sell them to parties interested in the designers work. The photos show up in newspapers, industry magazines, fashion magazines and various other media outlets. Thus, we see the latest fashion trend. Buyers, if impressed, order pieces that their clientele will be willing to pay hundreds or thousands to own. Other designers, those focused on mass production of more affordable versions of the latest trend, gather their inspiration here too. Thus, we can purchase the latest fashion trend. So, as you can see, it is impossible to pinpoint exactly how a fashion becomes a trend. What you can know, with certainty, is that it took many professionals in the fashion industry to get you to the cash register with your bohemian-inspired peasant blouse.

Antigone :: essays research papers

Life’s many ups and downs leads to many options There are many decisions you will need to make in life. Decisions such as deciding whether or not to make a sacrifice for someone. Every day there are many sacrifices being made. In fact life requires sacrifices to be made. Sacrifices such as dying for someone or choosing something instead of another. People also make sacrifices for what they believe in such as their beliefs or religion. Many people choose to make sacrifices for the people they love and care for such as family and friends. In Antigone by Sophocles, Antigone chose to sacrifice her life so her brother’s soul would be safely put to rest. Antigone was a very loving and caring sister to her brother, Polynices. She had lots of respect for her brother. She refused to let her brother’s soul wander around aimlessly therefore, she wanted to bury him. However, it was against her uncle’s orders to bury Polynices but she refused to listen. Since she had so much respect for her brother, she didn’t care what her uncle’s orders were. Therefore, she was going to do anything she could to bury him, even if it meant that she had to sacrifice her life. She knew it was the right thing to do. As she says here, â€Å"I know my duty, where true duty lies,† (1.1.78). Ismene was the other sister of Antigone and Polynices. She however, did not think that her family was important to her. Antigone told Ismene, â€Å"is he not my brother, and yours, whether you like it or not?, I shall never desert him, never,† (1.1.39) but still Ismene didn’t want to help. Well, maybe she did but she refused to help Antigone bury their brother because she didn’t want to sacrifice her life. She didn’t like the idea of going against her uncle’s orders like as she says here â€Å" you cannot mean....to bury him? Against the order,† (1.1.38). That showed that she didn’t have enough courage to go against the orders. However, towards the ending of the story she wanted to be a part of the burial but she wasn’t so she didn’t get any credit for it. Antigone however, did bury Polynices all by herself and then later committed suicide. Many choose to make sacrifices for their loved ones. Now of course family should be the most important, except for God.

Digital Single-lens Reflex Camera

Brochure More information from http://www. researchandmarkets. com/reports/2104103/ Digital Camera Market in India 2012 Description: Digital camera market in India can be characterized with strong growth potential in the ensuing years. Currently, the market is mainly dominated by a handful of players and a cut-throat competition exists amongst these players. The market was valued at INR 17. 5 bn during the fiscal year 2010 and is expected to attain a CAGR of 43% to reach INR 104. 6 bn by 2015. Rising disposable income and increased consumerism primary boosts the market in India.The report begins with a market overview, which provides an insight to the overall digital camera market. It describes the primary reasons which are propelling the market forward. The section also talks about the prevailing competition amongst major players and the market size and growth figures in India in terms of revenue as well as total camera units. This section also features Porter’s five forces a nalysis of the digital camera market in India, thereby offering a clear picture of the market scenario and market entry barriers for prospective new entrants.This section is followed by the technology section which enlightens the readers about the image sensors used in digital cameras for producing images. The sensors discussed in the report comprise of CMOS and CCD sensors. The section enlists the working procedures and advantages of these sensors, thereby providing detailed information about the Pros and Cons of each individual sensor. Distribution model section of the report briefly summarizes the various channels of product distribution, adopted by major players in the market to sell their products.It brings forth the present marketing strategies put in place by the players so as to increase their market reach and penetration. Pricing strategy analysis of top three vendors in the market have been derived after an in-depth analysis of the players concerned. The list generated aft er the research offers valuable insight about the various lucrative segments in the market. This section also features a separate analysis column which helps in clearly distinguishing the prime product segments on which these vendors primarily emphasize on.An analysis of the drivers and challenges explains the factors leading to the growth of the market including increased disposable income, declining prices, rise in e-commerce, increased travel plans and growing inclination for digital cameras. Strong opportunity exists in the market as increasing disposable income and higher consumption pattern drive the demand for digital cameras. This coupled with the fact that the increasing travel plans and constant decline of prices will lead to a developing market.Additionally, growing tendency to own a digital camera and to be able to share images online will fuel growth in this market. The key challenges identified are presence of grey market and emergence of Smart devices with camera feat ures. Basically, grey markets sell products prior to their official launch at comparatively lower prices and hence consumers are attracted by the fact of getting the latest product first hand, which in turn reduces the revenue generated by the overall market.The unprecedented growth in adoption of smart devices capable of capturing high quality images is also a factor hindering the full fledged growth in the market. A majority of the population still prefer devices such as Smartphones as a substitute of digital cameras. The prime reason for this tendency happens to be the common notion to own a multifunction product. Trends identified in the market comprise of introduction of mirrorless cameras, maintaining an India specific product portfolio, providing attractive features and specific focus on a particular range of products.Some of the key players in the market have introduced the mirrorless cameras in their product portfolio. This segment has attracted a lot of attention as these products have a comparatively lower body weight and are much more compact as compared to bulky DSLR cameras and hence owing to the portability quotient, these devices are finding a growing acceptability amongst both consumers as well vendors. It is also seen that most of the major players in the market India specific product portfolio wherein they price their products by keeping in mind the fact that India is a price sensitive country.Off late, the digital camera market has also seen the emergence of products with attractive features such as swivel LCD screens, direct image sharing over the internet, HD video recording and 3D imaging amongst other. Players are primarily incorporating these attractive features so as to lure consumers and gain a competitive edge over their competitors. Lastly, the key players in the market have exhibited a common tendency to bank upon a particular range of products. They spend a substantial amount of their operating expenses for the marketing of these products.This strategy is primarily adopted so as to increase brand visibility and awareness amongst consumers. The competition section provides detailed information about the competitive landscape in the market and includes a detailed profile of the major players in the market. This section covers crucial information about the players such as their corporate information, business highlights, a brief history of their respective corporate activities and sales intelligence. It further elaborates on the player’s detailed SWOT analysis and a comprehensive list of their product portfolio.A separate section on the future strategies of key vendors is also included in the report which gives value added information about the future plans of the top vendors in the market. This section highlights the key areas which these vendors are currently focusing on, so as to generate a better amount of revenue and garner a larger share in the overall market. The report concludes with a section o n strategic recommendations which comprises of an analysis of the growth strategies of the digital camera market in India. Contents:Page 1: Executive Summary Market Overview Page 2: Digital Camera Market – Overview; Digital camera – Market Size (FY 2010-2015e), Page 3: Porter’s Five Forces Analysis – Digital Camera Market Technology Page 4: Image Sensors – Working; Advantages Distribution Model Page 5: Distribution Model – Consumer Electronic Stores, Retail Showroom, Channel Partners, Distributors and Dealers Pricing Strategy Analysis of Top 3 Vendors Page 6: Pricing Strategy – Point and Shoot Segment Page 7: Pricing Strategy – DSLR Segment Drivers and Challenges Page 8: Summary Page 9-13: Drivers Page 14: Challenges Trends Page 15: Summary 16-17: Trends Competition Page 18: Canon Inc – Corporate Information; Sales Intelligence; Brief History and Business Highlights Page 19: Canon Inc – SWOT Analysis Page 20-23: C anon Inc – Product Portfolio Page 24: Eastman Kodak Company – Corporate Information; Sales Intelligence; Brief History and Business HighlightsPage 25: Eastman Kodak Company – SWOT Analysis Page 26: Eastman Kodak Company – Product Portfolio Page 27: FUJIFILM Holdings Corporation – Corporate Information; Sales Intelligence; Brief History and Business Highlights Page 28: FUJIFILM Holdings Corporation – SWOT Analysis Page 29-31: FUJIFILM Holdings Corporation – Product Portfolio Page 32: Nikon Corp – Corporate Information; Sales Intelligence; Brief History and Business Highlights Page 33: Nikon Corp – SWOT Analysis Page 34-36: Nikon Corp – Product Portfolio Page 37: Olympus – Corporate Information; Sales Intelligence; Brief History and Business Highlights Page 38: Olympus – SWOT Analysis Page 39-41: Olympus – Product Portfolio Page 42: Panasonic Corporation – Corporate Information; Sales Int elligence; Brief History and Business Highlights Page 43: Panasonic Corporation – SWOT Analysis Page 44-47: Panasonic Corporation – Product Portfolio Page 48: Samsung Electronics Co. Ltd. – Corporate Information; Sales Intelligence; Brief History and Business Highlights Page 49: Samsung Electronics Co. Ltd. – SWOT Analysis Page 50-53: Samsung Electronics Co. Ltd. Product Portfolio Page 54: Sony Corp – Corporate Information; Sales Intelligence; Brief History and Business Highlights Page 55: Sony Corp – SWOT Analysis Page 56-57: Sony Corp – Product Portfolio Future Strategies of Key Vendors Page 58: Future Strategy – Major Players Strategic Recommendations Page 59: Strategic Recommendations List of Charts & Figures Market Overview 1. Digital Camera Market Size – Revenue (FY10 – FY15e) 2. Digital Camera Market Size – Volume (2010-2015e) 3. Porter’s Five Forces Analysis Pricing Strategy – Digital Camera Market 4. Pricing Strategy – Point and Shoot Segment 5. Pricing Strategy – DSLR Segment Drivers and Challenges 6. 7. 8. 9. Total no. f household (mn) – (2005, 2015e, 2025e) Aggregate Annual Disposable Income (2005, 2015e, 2025e) e-Commerce market growth – India (2010 – 2015e) Travel and Tourism – Size and Growth (2010 – 2020e) List of Tables Distribution Model 1. Sales Channel – Major Vendors Competition 2. Major Players a. Corporate Information b. Sales Intelligence c. SWOT Analysis d. Product Portfolio Future Strategy of Key Vendors 3. Future Strategy – Major Vendors Ordering: Order Online – http://www. researchandmarkets. com/reports/2104103/ Order by Fax – using the form below Order by Post – print the order form below and send to Research and Markets, Guinness Centre, Taylors Lane, Dublin 8, Ireland. Page 1 of 2 Fax Order FormTo place an order via fax simply print this form, fill in the i nformation below and fax the completed form to 646-6071907 (from USA) or +353-1-481-1716 (from Rest of World). If you have any questions please visit http://www. researchandmarkets. com/contact/ Order Information Please verify that the product information is correct and select the format(s) you require. Product Name: Web Address: Office Code: Digital Camera Market in India 2012 http://www. researchandmarkets. com/reports/2104103/ OC8DJJJMQQSOPR Product Formats Please select the product formats and quantity you require: Quantity Electronic Single User: Electronic Site License: Electronic Enterprisewide: EUROâ‚ ¬ 595. 00 EUROâ‚ ¬ 1,190. 0 EUROâ‚ ¬ 1,785. 00 Contact Information Please enter all the information below in BLOCK CAPITALS Title: First Name: Email Address: * Job Title: Organisation: Address: City: Postal / Zip Code: Country: Phone Number: Fax Number: * Please refrain from using free email accounts when ordering (e. g. 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The Rise Of Adolf Hitler And The National Socialist German...

Upon the rise of Adolf Hitler and the National Socialist German Workers Party (the Nazi Party) in Germany, homosexuals, were one of the various groups targeted by the Nazis and were ultimately among the Holocaust victims. Commencing in the early rule of Hitler, homosexual organizations were expelled, scholarly books about homosexuality, and sexuality in general, were destroyed, and homosexuals within the Nazi Party itself were detained or executed. The Gestapo assembled lists of homosexuals in Germany, who were obliged to sexually obey or conform to the German norm or expectations. This is evident in direct reference to the memoirs of Pierre Seel and the atrocious suffering he endured due to his sexuality in Nazi Germany. â€Å"I, Pierre Seel, Deported Homosexual: A Memoir of Nazi Terror† provides historians with an insight into the Nazi regime and the miseries endured by the minorities of that time. This response will consider the context, content and importance of these text s, as well as the difficulties that it poses as a primary source to historians. Pierre Seel was born on 16 August 1923 in Mulhouse, Alsace, France. Alsace is a region in France very close to the German border. This made it extremely difficult for Seel as The Nazi Party of Germany and its leader Adolf Hitler had been threatening the countries of Europe for years during the 1930s and had invaded Poland in 1939. France, along with Britain, had declared war on Germany in response, and In 1940 Germany attackedShow MoreRelatedThe Treaty of Versailles Effect Essay1490 Words   |  6 Pagespower due to the fact that the demands of the Treaty of Versailles were harsh, and therefore not through the Nazis’ own merit and their propaganda. Adolf Hitler believed that propaganda was one of the most important things to have when establishing a governmental party. He believed that with this, any newly formed party could rise up to power. Hitler believed that if the propaganda was well presented they would be able to convince large groups of people about whatever they were trying to push acrossRead MoreHitler s Rise Of Power And Get His Fascist Ideas1639 Words   |  7 PagesWhy Did Hitler Rise to Power and Get his Fascist Ideas This essay will talk about the life of the Nazi Party (also known as the National Socialist German Workers Party), Fascism in Germany, and Adolf Hitler. It will think about what influenced Germany to vote for the Nazis and whether or not Hitler was brought up with the idea of fascism, or whether he was mentally scarred from a young age. This essay will also discuss about how did the Nazis do in their early years in the German elections, andRead MoreAdolf Hitler As A Leader Of Nazi Germany1640 Words   |  7 Pages Adolf Hitler is known throughout the world as being the leader of Nazi Germany in the early twentieth century, and ultimately the instigator for World War II. His actions have faced much scrutiny since the conflict was resolved, but the genius behind this war effort is seeded in the politics of his egregious nature. Early Life and Upbringing Hitler was born on April 20, 1889, at Braunau-am-Inn, Austria. Alois,his father, had risen from a poor peasant background to become an Austrian customs officialRead MoreThe Greatest Leader Of Adolf Hitler1250 Words   |  5 Pagescruelty and inhumanity, his name is Adolf Hitler. Adolf Hitler is known as one of the most evil leaders in world history but was also the most successful leader. The achievements accomplished by Hitler makes him the most successful leader in all of world history. Before he became the man everyone knows of, he was full of failures and a very troublesome childhood. In the small Austrian town of Braunau, a boy named Adolf Hitler was born on April 20, 1889. Young Adolf was very successful throughout elementaryRead MoreNazi Germany : The Most Evil Man Essay1664 Words   |  7 PagesCommonly thought to be the most evil man in all of modern history, Adolf Hitler ruled the country of Germany for twelve years. Although he ended up having unlimited power in Nazi Germany, he started his life the way most young men did in the early nineteenth century, a soldier in the Great War. He served his time in the German Military, and when the war ended he returned back to Germany. After the Great War Germany surrendered, and they were forced to sign the Treaty of Versaille. The treated blamedRead MoreAdolf Hitler s Biography : Early Childhood Through Adolescence852 Words   |  4 PagesAdolf Hitler’s Biography Early childhood through adolescence Adolf Hitler was born April 20, 1889, In Braunau am inn, Austria, the largest town in the upper Austrian Innviertel region. Adolf was the fourth child of six to Alois Hitler and Klara Pà ¶lzl. (Rise of Hitler: Adolf Hitler Is Born). At the age of 3 his family moved to Passau, Germany, there he acquired the distinctive lower Bavarian dialect, rather than Austrian German, which marked his speech throughout his life. In 1894 Adolf’s familyRead MorePropaganda and Radio Broadcasting In Nazi Germany Essay1374 Words   |  6 PagesIn 1933 Adolf Hitler was chosen as Chancellor of Germany by president Paul von Hindenburg. With this, the Nazi party came to power. Originally called the National Socialist German Workers party (Nazi for short), the Nazi party emphasized how Laissez-faire capitalism, economic liberalism, and democracy failed in government. The National Socialists stressed the importance of the impeccability of the German race. Although they had very determined ideas, The Nazi party began as a relatively small groupRead MoreGermans Into Nazis by Peter Fritzsche Essay791 Words   |  4 Pageseconomic recovery as well as a restoration of German pride. Hitler and his national socialist party were, in many German opinions, the hard lined party who would deliver such promises. 2) 30th January 1933. The collapse of the Weimar Republic gave way to the rise of the National Socialist party, which was then solidified by Hindenberg’s appointing of Adolf Hitler as the chancellor of Germany in 1933. The public’s consensus was not unanimous and Hitler’s rise to power saw countless counterdemonstrationsRead MoreAdolf Hitler As A Leader Of Men1147 Words   |  5 PagesMinister, David Lloyd George described Adolf Hitler as a â€Å" born leader of men†¦ A magnetic and dynamic personality with a single-minded purpose, a resolute will and a dauntless heart†. In Post World War 1 Germany, The Weimar Republic was doomed from its founding in 1918; an unstable, struggling republic in state of crisis. As the Weimar republic struggled to survive, a new political party was rising. The National Socialist German Workers’ party, also known as the Nazi party, gained popularity during the failingsRead MoreNazi Germany Essay1230 Words   |   5 Pagesfinancially and, since German propaganda had not prepared the nation for defeat, emotionally, resulting in a sense of injured German national pride. But because Germany was â€Å"stabbed in the back† by its leftwing politicians, Communists, and Jews, or more colourfully known as the ‘November Criminals’, it was still widely believed that Germany had not truly been defeated. When a new government, the Weimar Republic, tried to establish a democratic course, extreme political parties from both the right

Definition of Literacy Test

A literacy test measures a person’s proficiency in reading and writing. Beginning in the 19th century, literacy tests were used in the voter registration process in southern states of the U.S. with the intent to disenfranchise black voters. In 1917, with the passing of the Immigration Act, literacy tests were also included in the U.S. immigration process, and are still used today. Historically, literacy tests have served to legitimize racial and ethnic marginalization in the U.S. HISTORY OF RECONSTRUCTION AND JIM CROW ERA Literacy tests were introduced into the voting process in the South with the Jim Crow laws. Jim Crow laws were state and local laws and statutes enacted by southern and border states in the late 1870s to deny African Americans the right to vote in the South following Reconstruction (1865-1877). They were designed to keep whites and blacks segregated, to disenfranchise black voters, and to keep blacks subjugated, undermining the 14th and 15th Amendments of the United States Constitution. Despite the ratification of the 14th Amendment in 1868, granting citizenship to all persons born or naturalized in the United States which included former slaves, and the ratification of the 15th Amendment in 1870, which specifically gave African Americans the right to vote, Southern and Border states continued to find ways to keep racial minorities from voting. They used electoral fraud and violence to intimidate African American voters, and created Jim Crow laws to promote racial segregation. During the twenty years following Reconstruction, African Americans lost many of the legal rights that had been gained during Reconstruction. Even the Supreme Court of the United States â€Å"helped undermine the Constitutional protections of blacks with the infamous Plessy v. Ferguson (1896) case, which legitimized Jim Crow laws and the Jim Crow way of life.† In this case, the Supreme Court maintained that public facilities for blacks and whites could be â€Å"separate but equal.† Following this decision, it soon became the law throughout the South that public facilities had to be separate. Many of the changes made during Reconstruction proved to be short-lived, with the Supreme Court continuing to uphold racial discrimination and segregation in its decisions, thus giving southern states free reign to impose literacy tests and all manner of voting restrictions on prospective voters, discriminating against black voters. But racism was not just recurring in the South. Although the Jim Crow Laws were a Southern phenomenon, the sentiment behind them was a national one. There was a resurgence of racism in the North as well and â€Å" emerging national, indeed international, consensus (among whites at any rate) that Reconstruction had been a serious mistake. LITERACY TESTS AND VOTING RIGHTS Some states, such as Connecticut, used literacy tests in the mid-1800s to keep Irish immigrants from voting, but Southern states didn’t use literacy tests until after Reconstruction in 1890, sanctioned by the federal government, where they were used well into the 1960s. They were used ostensibly to test the voters ability to read and write, but in reality to discriminate against African American voters and sometimes poor whites. Since 40-60% of blacks were illiterate, compared to 8-18% of whites, these tests had a large differential racial impact. Southern states also imposed other standards, all of which were arbitrarily set by the test administrator. Those who were property owners or whose grandfathers had been able to vote  (â€Å"grandfather clause†),  those deemed to have â€Å"good character,† or those who paid poll taxes were able to vote. Because of these impossible standards, â€Å"in 1896, Louisiana had 130,334 registered black voters. Eight years later, only 1,342, 1 percent, could pass the state’s new rules.†Ã‚  Even in areas where the black population was substantially greater, these standards kept the white voting population in the majority. The administration of literacy tests was unfair and discriminatory. â€Å"If the official wanted a person to pass, he could ask the easiest question on the test—for example, Who is the president of the United States?† The same official might require a black person to answer every single question correctly, in an unrealistic amount of time, in order to pass.†Ã‚  It was up to the test administrator whether the prospective voter passed or failed, and even if a black man was well-educated, he would most likely fail, because â€Å"the test was created with failure as a goal.† Even if a potential black voter knew all the answers to the questions, the official administering the test could still fail him. Literacy tests were not declared unconstitutional in the South until ninety-five years after the15th Amendment was ratified, by the passage of the Voting Rights Act of 1965. Five years later, in 1970, Congress abolished literacy tests and discriminatory voting practices nationwide, and as a result, the number of registered African American voters increased dramatically. ACTUAL LITERACY TESTS In 2014 a group of Harvard University students was asked to take the 1964 Louisiana Literacy Test to raise awareness about voting discrimination.  The test is similar to those given in other Southern states since Reconstruction to potential voters who could not prove they had a fifth grade education. In order to be able to vote, a person had to pass all 30 questions in 10 minutes. All of the students failed under those conditions, because the test was meant to be failed. The questions have nothing at all to do with the U.S. Constitution and are completely nonsensical. You can try the test yourself here.   LITERACY TESTS AND IMMIGRATION In the late 19th century many people wanted to restrict the influx of immigrants to the U.S. due to increased problems of urbanization and industrialization such as crowding, lack of housing and jobs, and urban squalor. It was during this time that the idea of using literacy tests to control the number of immigrants able to enter the United States, particularly those from southern and eastern Europe, was formed. However, it took those who advocated for this approach many years to try to convince lawmakers and others that immigrants were the â€Å"cause† of many of America’s social and economic maladies. Finally, in 1917, Congress passed the Immigration Act, also known as the Literacy Act (and Asiatic Barred Zone Act), which included a literacy test that is still a requirement for becoming a U.S. citizen today. The Immigration Act demanded that those who were over the age of 16 and could read some language must read 30-40 words to show they were capable of reading. Those who were entering the U.S. to avoid religious persecution from their country of origin did not have to pass this test. The literacy test that is part of the Immigration Act of 1917 included only a few languages available to immigrants. This meant that if their native language was not included, they could not prove they were literate, and were denied entry. Beginning in 1950, immigrants could legally only take the literacy test in English, further limiting those who could gain entry to the United States. Besides demonstrating the ability to read, write, and speak English, immigrants also have to display knowledge of U.S. history, government, and civics. English literacy tests have effectively been used in the U.S. as a means to keep immigrants  that the government deemed unwanted out of the country, for the tests are demanding and rigorous.   Would you be able to pass them? REFERENCES 1.Jim Crow Museum of Racist Memorabilia, Ferris State University, 2.Foner, Eric., The Supreme Court and the History of Reconstruction -- and Vice-VersaColumbia Law Review, November 2012, 1585-1606http://www.ericfoner.com/articles/SupCtRec.html 3.4. Techniques of Direct Disenfranchisement 1880-1965,  University of Michigan, http://www.umich.edu/~lawrace/disenfranchise1.htm 4. Constitutional Rights Foundation, A Brief History of Jim Crow, http://www.crf-usa.org/black-history-month/a-brief-history-of-jim-crow 5. The Rise and Fall of Jim Crow, PBS, http://www.pbs.org/wnet/jimcrow/voting_literacy.html 6. Ibid. 7. http://epublications.marquette.edu/dissertations/AAI8708749/ RESOURCES AND FURTHER READING Alabama Literacy Test, 1965, http://www.pbs.org/wnet/jimcrow/voting_literacy.html Constitutional Rights Foundation, A Brief History of Jim Crow, http://www.crf-usa.org/black-history-month/a-brief-history-of-jim-crow Foner, Eric, The Supreme Court and the History of Reconstruction -- and Vice-Versa Columbia Law Review, November 2012, 1585-1606http://www.ericfoner.com/articles/SupCtRec.html Head, Tom, 10 Racist US Supreme Court Rulings, ThoughtCo., March 03, 2017, https://www.thoughtco.com/racist-supreme-court-rulings-721615 Jim Crow Museum of Racist Memorabilia, Ferris State University, http://www.ferris.edu/jimcrow/what.htm Onion, Rebecca, Take the Impossible â€Å"Literacy† Test Louisiana Gave Black Voters in the 1960s, http://www.slate.com/blogs/the_vault/2013/06/28/voting_rights_and_the_supreme_court_the_impossible_literacy_test_louisiana.html PBS, The Rise and Fall of Jim Crow, http://www.pbs.org/wnet/jimcrow/voting_literacy.html Schwartz, Jeff, CORE’s Freedom Summer, 1964 - My Experiences in Louisiana, http://www.crmvet.org/nars/schwartz.htm Weisberger, Mindy, Immigration Act of 1917 Turns 100: Americas Long History of Immigration Prejudice, LiveScience, Feb. 5, 2017, http://www.livescience.com/57756-1917-immigration-act-100th-anniversary.html